In the field of cardiac regeneration, skeletal myoblasts were the first cell type to be tested both in pre-clinical and clinical trials. Nowadays, several types of SCs at different developmental stages have been evaluated with respect to their cardiovascular regeneration potential (Table 1).ДЄdvantages and disadvantages of stem cell (SC) types used for cardiac regeneration Skeletal myoblasts It has now been almost two decades since first efforts were made in cardiac SC therapy. SC types considered for the treatment of heart disease Since the efficiency of SC therapy is quite limited we further discuss promising improvement strategies to increase the outcome of SC transplantation. Moreover, we highlight the potential mechanisms involved in SC-based cardiac repair. In this review, we provide an historical overview about the different cell types that have been used in regenerative medicine to treat CVDs. As a consequence, strategies have been developed in order to improve the potency of applied SCs. However, many open questions remain to be resolved and so far, no cell therapy has been unambiguously shown to be effective for the treatment of heart diseases. Over the last two decades, plenty of pre-clinical and early clinical trials have demonstrated the safety and feasibility of numerous SC types. In 2001, first encouraging pre-clinical study results, reporting the repair of infarcted cardiac tissue and the enhancement of ventricular function, led to the rapid translation of SC therapies within the same year. Innovative stem cell (SC) therapies have the potential to fundamentally alter the conventional treatment of CVDs by stimulating the regeneration of injured myocardium. Although current approaches improve symptoms and decelerate adverse cardiac remodeling, they fail to address the underlying problem of an irreversible loss of cardiac tissue. Despite significant advancements in pharmacological and interventional treatment options, heart diseases represent an increasingly common disorder that carries a poor long-term prognosis. Karger AG, BaselДЄccounting for more than 3.9 million deaths a year, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remain the most common cause of death in Europe. Therefore, future strategies should aim at more personalized SC therapies in which individual disease parameters influence the selection of optimal cell type, dosage and delivery approach. Moreover, since cardiovascular diseases are complex disorders including several disease patterns and pathologic mechanisms it may be difficult to provide a uniform therapeutic intervention for all subgroups of patients. Based on these mechanisms, researchers have developed different improvement strategies to boost the potency of stem cell repair and to generate the вЂњnext generationвЂќ of stem cell therapeutics. In order to optimize stem cell efficiency, it is crucial to elucidate the underlying mechanisms mediating the beneficial effects of stem cell transplantation. However, results obtained from clinical studies are inconsistent and stem cell-based improvement of heart performance and cardiac remodeling was found to be quite limited. Since the first transplantation into human patients, several stem cell types have been applied in this field, including bone marrow derived stem cells, cardiac progenitors as well as embryonic stem cells and their derivatives.

A large number of clinical trials have shown stem cell therapy to be a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.

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